Freedom of Religion Before the American Revolution

 

Freedom of religion, as we understand it, did not exist in America until after the American Revolution. The Church of England was legally made the established church. The established church was closely linked to the political and financial elites. 

 By the time of the Revolution, “dissenters”, non-Anglican colonists who were predominantly Baptists or Presbyterians, made up a sizeable portion of the population.  Although tolerated, dissenters were required to pay taxes to support the Anglican Church, in addition to paying for their own church and pastor.  Dissenting pastors and their meetinghouses had to receive licenses a colony’s General Court. Additionally, the law dictated that only ministers of the established church could legally perform baptisms, marriage ceremonies, and funerals, which resulted in such anomalies as requiring a Lutheran minister to become an ordained minister of the Church of England in order to legally perform a marriage ceremony in his own church.

 Some dissenters refused to comply with the law. Many believed that preaching need not be confined to the pulpit and that the state had no right to dictate where and to whom believers could preach the gospel. 

 The principle of protecting religious pluralism would subsequently be included in the First Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1791.

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Who Killed Custer?

 

One of the most debated issues of the Battle of the Little Bighorn is the exact nature of George Armstrong Custer’s death.  Who killed Custer, where was he killed, and when did he die? 

One popular theory says that Custer was seriously wounded (or even killed) early in the battle.  Custer advanced with several companies down Medicine Tail Coulee in an attempt to ford the river.  Supposedly, Custer was shot in the middle of the stream and the cavalry retreated after placing the dying man back on his horse.  White Cow Bull claimed to have fired the shot that felled a buckskin clad soldier.  Was it Custer?  None of the other warriors who were actually present at the ford ever mentioned the incident.  The only corroboration comes from two of Custer’s own Crow scouts, who were not actually there.  The scout White Man Runs Him heard later that Custer was hit in the chest by a bullet and fell into the water.  The account of the scout Goes Ahead, comes to us second hand from his wife Pretty Shield, to whom he supposedly told the story that Custer was killed at the river and that he was drunk at the time.

Historians have suggested that the attempt to ford the river at Medicine Tail Coulee was abandoned not because Custer was shot but because he realized that this was the middle of the village not the end.  In any event, the Crow scout Curly, reported Custer in robust health, after he had supposedly been shot, galloping north in an attempt to find another crossing point.

There are many other candidates for who killed Custer, including Custer himself.  According to this theory, Custer killed himself because he feared capture.  Custer’s body had two wounds, a chest wound and a head wound in the left temple.  It would have been difficult for the right handed Custer to shoot himself in the left temple, but theoretically this could have been an “assisted” suicide.

Among those claiming to have killed Custer were:  Red Horse, a Miniconjou warrior; Flat Hip, a Hunkpapa warrior, and Walks-Under-the-Ground, a Santee warrior who wound up in possession of Custer's horse after killing somebody.  Little Knife, a Hunkpapa warrior, said Brown Back killed Custer to avenge his brother.  Two sons of Scarlet Tip, chief of the Santee, claimed they jointly killed Custer. 

Cheyenne oral tradition passed down since 1876 says that Custer may have been killed by a woman warrior, Buffalo Calf Road Woman.  Minimally, she is said to have knocked Custer off his horse with a club and made off with his saber.

In 1905 Rain-in-the-Face made a deathbed confession that he thought it was he who had killed Custer having been “so close to him that the powder from my gun blackened his face.”

The mystery of who killed Custer was probably never known. The dust, smoke and chaos of the battle made it impossible to distinguish one soldier from another.  When asked, Sitting Bull said that nobody knew who killed Custer — nor even knew that he was present until days later.

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The King Who Thought He Was a Frog

 

If a man believes himself to be a frog should we treat him as a frog?  What if that man is a king? 

The Bourbon dynasty came to power in Spain in 1700 with the accession of Philip V, grandson of Louis XIV of France.  Initially Philip brought French-inspired reforms to a declining empire, fostering Atlantic trade and administrative efficiency. However, his reign, the longest in Spanish history at 45 years, was marred by his severe mental instability.  This affliction manifested itself in profound melancholy, hallucinations, and bizarre delusions.

The most infamous delusion attributed to Philip was his conviction that he had transformed into a frog. During one severe episode in the spring of 1727, he reportedly leapt about in the palace garden croaking.  At other times he attempted to ride horses he saw woven into tapestries, unable to distinguish delusion from reality.  Contemporaries noted his screams and self-inflicted bites during his frequent fits.

Besides thinking himself a frog, Philip had many other delusions. He often imagined himself dead, refusing to move for fear of shattering like glass—particularly believing his legs were fragile and would break if he walked. In another hallucination, he claimed his feet were of unequal sizes, rendering mobility impossible.

Paranoia fueled fears of poisoning via clothing, lead him to wear the same filthy shirt for months, while neglecting personal hygiene, allowing his toenails to grow so long they impeded walking. He had an aversion to water and sunlight.  Philip was convinced that the sun was following him and plotting to incinerate him at the first opportunity.  Insomnia reversed the king’s schedule; he slept by day, conducting council meetings at night.  He isolated himself from courtiers, who had to endure his animal like howling.

The king suffered religious obsessions, including the notion that abdicating might save his soul. These delusions peaked in the 1720s and 1730s, prompting his brief abdication in 1724 to his son Louis I, ostensibly for spiritual retreat but driven by his mental decline. Louis's untimely death from smallpox forced Philip's return, deepening his melancholy. His evident madness eroded royal authority, fostering court intrigue and policy stagnation.

In an age without psychiatric intervention, Philip's frog-like leaps and glass-legged fears painted a tragic portrait of a king untethered from reality.

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The Funeral and Burial of Abraham Lincoln

 

Abraham Lincoln, the 16th President of the United States, was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth on April 14, 1865, at Ford's Theatre in Washington, D.C. His death plunged the nation into profound grief, coming just days after the surrender of Confederate General Robert E. Lee at Appomattox, signaling the end of the Civil War. Lincoln's state funeral became an unprecedented spectacle of national mourning, spanning three weeks and involving elaborate ceremonies, public viewings, and a historic funeral train journey. This event not only honored the fallen leader but also unified a divided country in shared sorrow, with millions participating in the rituals. The proceedings began in the capital and culminated in his burial in Springfield, Illinois, his hometown.

Immediately after the assassination, Lincoln's body was transported to the White House by an honor guard on April 15. There, it was embalmed—a relatively new practice at the time—to preserve it for the extended mourning period. The East Room was transformed into a somber chapel, draped in black crepe with mirrors and chandeliers covered in mourning fabric. On April 18, the public was allowed to view the open coffin from 9:30 a.m. to 5:30 p.m., followed by a private viewing for dignitaries until 7:30 p.m. Thousands filed past, many weeping openly at the sight of their beloved president, his face showing the toll of years of wartime leadership.

The formal funeral service in the White House occurred on April 19, attended by approximately 600 invited guests, including cabinet members, military leaders, and foreign diplomats. The East Room overflowed with mourners, some spilling into the adjacent Green Room. Notably absent was Mary Todd Lincoln, the president's widow, who was too overcome with grief to attend. General Ulysses S. Grant sat alone at the head of the catafalque, his uniform a stark contrast to the black-draped surroundings, and was seen wiping away tears. President Andrew Johnson stood with the Cabinet. The Rev. Dr. Phineas D. Gurley, pastor of the New York Avenue Presbyterian Church, delivered a poignant sermon, likening Lincoln to Moses leading his people to the Promised Land but not entering it himself. Hymns and prayers filled the air, emphasizing themes of sacrifice and redemption. After the service, guests exited in orderly lines to the north driveway, where they awaited the procession.

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The World's Last Combat Veteran of World War I

 

Claude Choules, the last surviving World War I combat veteran, witnessed the historic scuttling of the German High Seas Fleet in Scapa Flow, Scotland, in 1919. As a young Royal Navy sailor, he observed the dramatic event when German officers sank their own ships. Over 50 vessels, including battleships and cruisers, were deliberately sunk.

Claude Choules served with the Royal Navy from 1915 until 1926. After having emigrated to Australia he served with the Royal Australian Navy, from 1926 until 1956.  Claude Choules died on MAY 5, 2011 at the age of 110 years and 63 days.

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The Custer Statues

 

In Monroe, Michigan, the George Armstrong Custer Equestrian Monument, sculpted by Edward Clark Potter, was unveiled in 1910. In New Rumley, Ohio, Custer’s birthplace, an 8.5-foot bronze statue by Erwin Frey stands at a roadside park, marking his 1839 birth. Both memorials celebrate Custer’s military legacy but spark debate due to his controversial role in the Indian Wars.  In 1879 a statue of Custer was erected at West Point. Custer’s widow, Elizabeth “Libbie” Custer wrote, “The statue could not be worse than it is.”  She lobbied ceaselessly to have the statue removed.  It was removed and scrapped in 1884.

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Last American World War I Veteran

 

Frank Buckles, born February 1, 1901, in Missouri, was the last surviving American World War I veteran, passing away on February 27, 2011, at age 110. Enlisting in the U.S. Army at 16 by lying about his age, he served as an ambulance driver in France. Later, during World War II, he endured three years as a civilian prisoner in the Philippines. Buckles advocated for a national World War I memorial in Washington, D.C., until his final years. His remarkable life symbolized the enduring legacy of the "doughboys."

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